Introduction
Although every thesis is unique, they all aim to persuade the reader of one 'big idea'. This central claim is otherwise referred to as the ‘thesis’; hence a research thesis is the development of one central claim. This is reflected in research degree requirements that ask candidates to demonstrate a ‘significant original contribution to knowledge, and/or to the application of knowledge within the field of study’. This resource will focus on the different styles and structures of research theses, and on the steps in the story line, or the thread that carries the thesis within a large document. The same steps underpin academic research writing in general, and this resource will be useful to those writing journal articles and other academic texts.Four writing steps will be considered in this resource.
§ Step 1: introduction and literature review
§ Step 2: method and methodology
§ Step 3: results/evidence
§ Step 4: discussion and conclusion
These steps can occur within a variety of thesis styles and structures. Some of the more salient of these are listed below. Thesis styles
There are two readily observable thesis styles or structures, each of which represents a mode of critique or method of persuasion common within academic writing. Mike Metcalf (2002:6-7) defines these two thesis styles as ‘hypothesis testing’ and ‘descriptive’.1. ‘Hypothesis testing’ or question/answer style
‘The cops discover who did it’ (Metcalf, 2002:6-7).‘Hypotheses testing’ theses open with a question or hypothesis and end with an answer. The thesis tells a story about how the question was investigated or answered. The conclusion, answer, or main point is not presented until the end (though it does appear in the abstract). The first step of the thesis story line is the literature review and the statement of the hypothesis/question. The question appears in the introduction. The second step of the story line is the method. The method explains how the question will be answered. The third step in the story line is the results section which summarises the evidence that was gathered to answer the question. The last step in the story line is the answer to the question. This appears in the opening paragraph of the discussion or conclusion chapter.
2. ‘Descriptive’ or 'argument' style
‘The lawyers convince a jury’ (Metcalf, 2002:6-7).The descriptive thesis provides a statement of the main proposition or argument of the thesis in the introduction and abstract. The story line is structured around this central argument. Each chapter and section works to support the main proposition by developing one aspect of it and providing specific substantiation for it (reasoned debate, evidence, presentation of data, reflective commentary and practice in the art studio).
There are no set rules about what thesis writing style you should choose, but being clear about the style you are aiming for can be useful in the writing process.
Thesis structures
From Paltridge, B ‘Thesis and dissertation writing: An examination of published articles and actual practice’, in English for Specific Purposes.
1. Traditional: Simple
§ Introduction
§ Literature Review
§ Materials and Methods
§ Results
§ Discussion
§ Conclusions
2. Traditional: Complex
§ Introduction
§ Review of the literature
§ Background theory
§ General Methods
§ Study 1
· Introduction
· Methods
· Results
· Discussion and conclusion
§ Study 2
· Introduction
· Methods
· Results
· Discussion and conclusion
§ Study 3 etc
· Introduction
· Methods
· Results
· Discussion and conclusion
§ Conclusions
3. Topic-based (for literature/theory research)
§ Introduction
§ Topic 1
§ Topic 2
§ Topic 3 etc
§ Conclusions
4. Compilation of Research Articles
§ Introduction
§ Background to the Study
§ Research Article 1
· Introduction
· Literature review
· Materials and methods
· Results
· Discussion and conclusion
§ Research article 2
· Introduction
· Literature review
· Materials and methods
· Results
· Discussion and conclusion
§ Research article 3 etc
· Introduction
· Literature review
· Materials and methods
· Results
· Discussion and conclusion
§ Discussion and Conclusions
Step 1: Introduction and literature review
Whichever style or structure you choose, the first step of the research story line is to persuade the reader that the question or argument posed in the thesis is justified and ‘significant’. This is typically accomplished in the following ways:1. outline an unresolved issue or problem to be addressed in the research;
2. describe the field/s of literature that address the problem;
3. establish a ‘gap’ in the field/s of literature;
4. pose a research question, aim or objective, or an 'argument'.
The thesis introduction also includes:§ a summary of the research design;
§ definitions of key terms used throughout the thesis;
§ an outline of the main points within the middle chapters of the thesis.
Depending on how much writing is required to establish the 'gap' in the field, the literature review can be included in the introduction, or be given a separate chapter of its own. Or you might include parts of the literature review within each of the middle chapters of the thesis. The same goes for the research design. It can be incorporated in the introduction, or form a separate chapter, or be included within each of the middle chapters. If you choose to write a separate chapter, or to include the literature review and research design within the middle chapters, be sure to provide a summary of the overarching contribution the thesis aims to make to a body of literature and a summary of the research design in the main introduction of the thesis. You can then refer the reader, in brackets at the end of the relevant sentence, to the appropriate chapter/s for more detail.For longer literature review chapters:
§ Remind the reader of the problem in the opening sentences of the introductory paragraph.
§ Introduce what will be discussed.
§ Divide the literature into chronological, conceptual, thematic or other groupings.
§ Introduce these groupings in the opening paragraphs.
§ Give reasons for choice of themes (unless obvious).
§ Provide headings that describe the content within each major section (and correspond to the themes introduced in the introduction).
§ Take up each grouping in turn, and in the order it was introduced within the main body of the review.
Transforming the research proposal into the thesis introduction
You will notice that the four steps above are also the key steps involved in writing the research proposal. Both the thesis introduction and the research proposal aim to provide a justification for the research. For this reason, it is often possible to reformat the research proposal into a first rough draft of the thesis introduction. It will of course be necessary to delete the time line, table of contents, appendices, and perhaps much of the detail of the literature review and research design. But you can use your problem formulation, key definitions, important background information, and an introduction to, or full summary of the 'gap' in the literature that your research will fill, as well as the summary of the research design, if not the full description. You can also include the statement of the aims or objectives of your research in the thesis introduction.1. The ‘problem’
Like the research proposal, thesis writing opens with an unresolved problem or paradox, or an explanation of something important that we need to know. This is done in order to grab the reader’s attention, establish the significance of the research, and signal the literature/s that the research will contribute to. In some theses, this is accomplished in a few sentences or paragraphs. In others it may take several pages or even an entire chapter.Common introductory strategies that establish a relationship with the reader:
§ a quotation (appropriate and explained in text);
§ a concession (recognise an opinion/approach different to your own);
§ a paradox;
§ a short anecdote or narrative;
§ an interesting fact or statistic;
§ a question or several questions (that you will proceed to answer);
§ relevant background material;
§ an analogy;
§ an important definition (examine its complexities).
Whichever approach is adopted, the problem should be explained in a way that shows that it matters to people in everyday life, to the things people care about, or to issues we consider important in some way. 2. The ‘field’ of the research
A ‘field of literature’ refers to a body of work united around a shared set of questions, concerns, theoretical assumptions or debates. For example: 'environmental psychology’, ‘early childhood education’, ‘tourist studies’, ‘sociology of aging’. It is important to clearly signal the 'field/s of literature' that the research aims to contribute to in the early pages of the thesis.The central concerns that unite a field of literature are not always stated explicitly. You must read deeply to see them. For example, the underlying question or concern within environmental psychology might be something like: ‘how do human beings engage with the environment?’ or ‘how does the brain process environmental information?’ The underlying question within early childhood education might be something like: ‘how do children learn’ or ‘how can we maximize children’s learning?’ There are often a number of different points of view and methodological approaches to the central questions within a field of scholarship. Good research is mindful of the critical debates and underpinning theoretical concepts within the field and relates its discussion to them.
3. The 'gap' in the literature’
The statement of the problem is followed by a statement of the 'gap' in the field/s of literature that the research aims to address. The 'gap' could refer to an unresolved question, a paradox, a missing piece of information, a theoretical inconsistency or to some other weakness within existing understandings of the phenomenon under study. Writing about the gap in the literature is often referred to as the 'literature review', although 'literature review' is also used to refer more generally to writing that critically engages with the ideas of others. When we talk about the literature review in this resource we are referring specifically to that part of the thesis or journal article whose task is to outline the 'gap' in the literature and the significance of the research.The task of the literature review within research writing is to:
§ take the reader from the broad topic to the research questions;
§ define the field/s of the research;
§ introduce and explain findings and theories that support the research;
§ draw together main conclusions of literature relevant to the topic;
§ highlight gaps or unresolved issues within the literature;
§ establish what is original, new or 'significant' about the research.
Although approaches to the literature review are diverse, there are a couple of salient approaches. Many question/answer style theses tend toward a review structured somewhat like an upside down triangle. Accepted findings are presented first, at the base, with unresolved problems being raised until the discussion gradually narrows down to the statement of the research question or aim. The literature review section or chapter closes with the statement of the question, aim or significance of the research thesis, the end point of the triangle. This kind of structure is most apparent for research that aims to build on existing research, and establishes its significance in terms of providing the next brick in the road.Many descriptive or argument style theses open with a claim that there is a missing element or inadequacy in the literature. The main body of the review is then organised around a demonstration of this weakness in a closer engagement with the literature (in which areas of agreement are also mapped out). The significance of the research is established by showing that an alternative approach is needed, of which the research aims to contribute. A statement to this effect is provided in the closing sections of the review.
Example introduction to a literature review chapter
Ekins, R 1997, Male femaling, Routledge, London.
| Paragraph 1 As I have intimated in Chapter 1, cross-dressing and sex-changing in contemporary advanced industrialised societies are variously considered as shocking: a media spectacle of prurient and endless fascination; a medical problem to be understood, managed and treated … Paragraph 2 Each aspect has generated its own literature in terms of curiosity and sensationalism in the popular press (provides references), specialist texts on ‘transvestism’, ‘transsexuality’ and ‘gender dysphoria’ in the psychiatric-psychological-medical arena (provides references), and in terms of world-wide information networks for cross-dressers and sex changers themselves (provides references). Infrequently, social scientists have attended to the area, most typically from the specialist standpoints of ethnomethodology, the sociology of deviance, the medicalisation of gender roles, or feminism. Studies such as these have invariably underplayed the erotic, in both its subjective and social features. Only Lewins (1995) and the occasional serious piece of journalism in the quality press have attempted to bridge the gap between the disparate and discrete literatures. Paragraph 3 From a quite different standpoint … (there has been literature on ‘gender bending’ – provides detail/references). … Further, a more widespread questioning of gender role stereotypes has led many commentators to touch on ‘transsexuals’ and ‘transvestites’ as part of a general consideration of contemporary gender options. These writers suggest that cross-dressers and sex-changers may have a lot to teach us all, about the most fundamental questions of our natures, as being variously sexed and gendered. … Such studies, for the most part, however, remain at the level of textual analysis and evidence a lack of intimate and wide-ranging knowledge of the experiences of cross-dressers and sex-changers themselves. Paragraph 4 What remains to be addressed, then, is a consideration of cross-dressing and sex-changing from the standpoint of a systematic and empirical exploration of the interrelations between sex, sexuality and gender. … Paragraph 6 Arguably, the reason for the neglect is that the literature lacks a serious non-medicalised treatment of cross-dressers and sex-changers based on extensive and first-hand knowledge of informants, considered as equals and co-workers, as they relate over time and place with their families, friends and associates in the full range of domestic, leisure, work, medical and sub cultural settings. It is the purpose of this study to rectify this gap in the literature. Paragraph 7 It is instructive to distinguish the grounded theory approach from others used in the psychiatric and social scientific literature. The following review will serve as both a summary of the cognate work and an introduction to the research methodology which generated this study. | States the problem the research is concerned to address. Provides a description of the literatures and discipline areas that have addressed the problem. Highlights an important gap in these literatures (the erotic), and draws attention to the disparate nature of literatures on the topic. Highlights a further field of literature on the problem area. States uncontested conclusion, acknowledges prior research. Points to a methodological weakness within this literature ─ failure to attend to experience. Summarises the contribution of the study systematic, empirical exploration that includes sex, gender, sexuality. Restates the problem and the gap in the literature that the study will address, and signals the appropriateness of the method to address this gap. Reminds us of the central 'gap' and how the study will contribute - by bringing methodological focus on empirical experience. |
How do I decide where to discuss different literature within the thesis?
In a research thesis, every chapter refers to the work of other scholars, although for different purposes. As a simple rule of thumb, decisions about where to discuss literature should be made on the basis of the function of the chapter or section.In the literature review chapter/s or section/s, discuss literature that demonstrates what is known about the problem area, the relevant fields of knowledge that pertain to it, the significance of your research, and what it will contribute to the field ─ the 'gap' in the literature.
In the methods and methodology chapter/s or section/s, discuss literature about methods and the methodological approach in order to justify the appropriateness and effectiveness of the research design for your research question.
In the results chapter/s or section/s, discuss literature in order to compare and contrast your results with past findings, or to highlight the significance or limitations of the results.
In the discussion or conclusion chapter/s or section/s, discuss literature that shows the broader significance of the results, or to signal further questions or issues raised by the results.
4. The ‘question’ and ‘argument’
The thesis statement can be framed either as a question/answer, or as an ‘argument’. If you adopt the question/answer style the question or aims appear in the introduction, but the answer to the question is not provided until the conclusion of the thesis or article. It is also provided in the abstract. In descriptive or argument style theses and articles, the main idea or central thesis is provided in the opening page or pages of the introduction as well as the abstract.The question, aim or objective
In question/answer style academic writing, the 'question' can be framed as a direct question, a hypothesis, or as an objective or aim. (Although descriptive or argument style theses and research articles do not usually pose questions or hypotheses, they may include a statement of the research objective or aim). When writing about the research objectives, remember you are aiming to produce knowledge, so the question, objective or aim should be framed in a way that points to the kind of knowledge the research will generate.When writing the research question, remember that the question aims to enable the reader to read the data in a directed manner, and to anticipate the answer as either generally affirmative or negative. For this reason, try to frame your question as precisely as possible. Avoid producing more than one question or research objective.
Example question/answer
Question/objective: This study aims to determine whether the inclusion of feminist theory in the curriculum in South Australian primary schools reduced sexist behaviour in the schoolyard.Not: The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of feminist theory in the curriculum in South Australian primary schools (vague, expected answer unclear).
Answer/conclusion: Sexist behaviour is being reported and observed in rates which have no relation to the level of inclusion of feminist theories into the curriculum design. Formal education has a very tenuous influence on informal behaviour patterns of school children.
The ‘argument’
The central claim or ‘argument’ in a descriptive style thesis should have surprise value or be insightful or risky in some way (Metcalf, 2002:5). This is often achieved by preceding the statement of the argument with statements that ‘set the scene’.Example argument
Not: ‘the sky is blue’.Argument: ‘the sky was red in the early stages of the earth’s development’ (Metcalf, 2002:5).
Example: Setting the scene for the argument
Bacchi, C 1999, Women, policy and politics, SAGE Publications, London.
'Policy issues are often written about as though there were only one possible interpretation of the issue at stake. We are not encouraged to reflect upon the ways in which issues take shape (provides a common sense take on the subject to set the scene for the argument). In contrast, the approach developed in this book takes as its starting point that it makes no sense to consider the ‘objects’ or targets of policy as existing independently of the way they are spoken about or represented, either in political debate or in policy proposals. Any description of an issue or a ‘problem’ is an interpretation, and interpretations involve judgment and choices' (statement of argument). The sentence opener 'I argue ...' is often used to signal the central idea of a thesis or article. For this reason, using the phrase 'I argue ...' to introduce ideas that are not central to the thesis can mislead the reader. This can be avoided by using this phrase only when signalling the central thesis.
Definitions
Introductions of theses and journal articles also provide definitions for unclear or contested terms. In general, we assume that the meaning of words complies with their dictionary definitions. Sometimes however words are not in the dictionary, or their use within a particular context is different from the dictionary usage, or the word can be used in a number of different ways. When the meaning of a term is unclear or contested, it must be defined the first time it is used. This often occurs in the introduction of the thesis, though other terms can be defined as they arise in the flow of the writing. Technical, theoretical or other terms can be defined by referring to a previously published definition. Alternatively, aim to provide a precise, unambiguous definition, and to use the term in this sense throughout the main body of the writing. Try to avoid unnecessarily long definitions that break the flow of the story line.The chapter outline
The chapter outline is often the last section of the thesis introduction, and usually follows after the description of the research design. In journal articles, you will often notice that the outline of the paper is also the last element of the introductory paragraphs.The chapter outline within a research thesis aims to summarise the main ideas from each of the middle chapters of the thesis, and to show how they link with the main argument or research objective. Introductory and concluding chapters do not need to be summarised because they are themselves summary chapters. For the other chapters, the objective is to integrate the summaries into the flow of the writing, to avoid repetition of content, and to be clear about how each chapter supports the key objectives of the research.
You can write the chapter outline by re reading each of the middle chapters and noting down the key points in a few sentences on a separate piece of paper. Then go back to the introduction and incorporate your summary in the introduction. Be sure to make a note of the main sub headings or themes discussed in each chapter, but try to be as concise as possible. Each chapter is discussed in the order in which it appears in the thesis.
A chapter outline that reads like a list can be avoided by replacing the sentence opener 'Chapter such and such ...' with the main points within that chapter and then following with 'see chapter 3', perhaps in brackets at the end of the sentence. This is often done when summarising literature review and research design chapters. The content of these chapters often does not require inclusion in the chapter outline because it has already been discussed in the opening pages.
Since the middle chapters need to be written before the chapter outline, it is usually the last section of the introduction to be completed. However, it is a good idea to write the chapter summaries and include them in the introduction as you write them even though they will probably change as the focus becomes clearer. The introduction acts like a map of the thesis. By travelling back and forward between the chapters and the summary of the chapters in the introduction, you can ensure that the map provides an accurate reflection of the territory or main body of the thesis.
The chapter summaries should also flow naturally from the problem, the literature review and the statement of the method in the thesis introduction. It is helpful to read your draft introduction through as you periodically include the chapter summaries to ensure that the ideas in the thesis flow. Weak links in the chain of ideas will be easier to detect after writing the middle thesis chapters when you will come to the introduction with a fresh eye. If the ideas within the introduction do not follow logically, it could mean that either the introduction or the ideas within the chapters need some redrafting.
In summary
After reading an introduction, the reader should know:§ what problem, issue or controversy the research relates to;
§ what bodies of literature and fields of practice the research relates to;
§ why the research is significant;
§ for question/answer theses, the central question, hypothesis or research objective;
§ for descriptive theses, the central argument, idea, theory (your ‘thesis’);
§ the definitions of any key terms;
§ how the answer or evidence was attained (research methods);
§ the rationale underpinning the method (methodology);
§ the chapter contents, and how each chapter supports the thesis objective or argument.
A note on 'background' chapters
Background chapters are chapters that occur between the introduction and the middle chapters of the thesis. Their purpose is to provide information the reader needs in order to follow the story line – information that does not sensibly fit within any of the other chapters. You might need a background chapter if your work spans two or more fields of literature or disciplines of which your readers would not be familiar.Background chapters should be provided only when absolutely necessary, and are best kept as concise as possible in order to prevent breaking up the story line of the central thesis.
Step 2: Method and methodology
The method and methodology is the second step of the story line. It explains how you will answer the question, or how you arrived at your conclusions. Regardless of the style and structure of thesis, you must explain:1. what you did to achieve the research aims, or reach your conclusions,
2. why this approach was appropriate for your research.
Placement of method/methodology within the thesis
Options include:1. covered in the introduction, and not discussed in detail elsewhere;
2. a separate chapter, following the literature review;
3. combined with results and discussion within the middle chapters;
4. no method/methodology chapter, theoretical discussion chapter/s explain the development of ideas in chapters following the introduction and literature review.
Many descriptive theses do not have a separate method or methodology chapter. A description of the study design is typically provided in the introduction. This might be followed by one or more theory chapters that outline how a particular approach will be used to analyse data, or support the argument. Method and methodology chapters are more common in question/answer theses and theses based on empirical data.
How much to write
When the method, methodology or model is simple, well known or uncontroversial do not add extensive detail. Consider covering the method within the introductory chapter of the thesis, or sections that include results and discussion.When the method, methodology or model is less straightforward, requires more detail to explain, or is more open to question, consider dedicating a separate chapter or chapters to a discussion of method and methodology.
When the method, methodology or model is unique, highly detailed, or your study design is likely to raise significant questions in the reader’s mind that could affect how they view your findings and assertions, provide enough descriptive information and explanation to justify and clarify your research design and its underpinning rationale. Always provide references and be as concise as possible.
Chapters and sections that describe the study design include information about:
§ the population or sample
§ documents, institutions, contexts
§ sample size, how samples were selected
§ the location of the sample
§ materials, experimental processes used
§ critical ethical or safety considerations raised by the study
§ how the data was collected, summarised, analysed
§ surveys, questionnaires and tests used
§ computer programs (including version or release number, non-default options, how used to analyse data, and references)
§ mathematical models
§ equations and non standard statistical tests
§ definitions of indicators, how derived variables were calculated
§ theory.
The methods chapter or section does not include results (unless they were obtained to shape some aspect of the method, and are more relevant to the methods section than the results section). 1. Link the question or objective to the method ─ Say why you did what you did
The first step in summarising the research design, whether in the thesis introduction or within the introduction of a research design chapter or section, is to say why you did what you did. This is accomplished by reminding the reader of the objective of the research and then following with a description of the methods. The methods should be described as explicitly as possible. You are aiming for a statement that carries the critical information with as few words as possible. It should include method (survey, experiment, textual analysis), where the research was conducted (geographical or institutional context), with whom (sample population), how many research participants were involved (number), and any other information the reader needs to understand the core elements of the research design.Poor example
This chapter will outline the sampling, questionnaire design and questionnaire procedure used for the quantitative questionnaire survey with co-witnesses, as well as the quantitative survey with police officers which preceded the interviews and experiments. (No link to the question or study objective, does not provide critical information about the method).Better example
In order to investigate the theoretical implications of co-witness discussion on eyewitness memory, two research phases were staged. In the first, legal authorities, police officers and witnesses were surveyed to determine the prevalence of co-witness discussion and their attitudes towards it. The second stage involved three experiments and interviews with … and so on. (This example is better because it explains what was done to achieve the study objectives).2. Link the method to the methodology ─ Say what your method will show
Once you have described the method, the next task is to explain what you expect your method will show or reveal. What kind of knowledge do you expect your research design to produce? This is often referred to as the research methodology or the 'theoretical framework' of the thesis. The methodology explains the assumptions that underpin the study design. These assumptions can range from highly philosophical or theoretical to more practical elements of the design. You are effectively telling your reader how you wish them to read your findings. Within what methodological or theoretical frame, or set of limits do you wish your findings to be read?Methodological aims:
§ to test or build hypotheses in order to predict or determine specified phenomenon or outcomes;
§ provide a rich description of a specific context in order to understand lived experience,
§ compare lived experience with theoretical or policy accounts of a life world;
§ reflect upon the way culture shapes an experience, and distinguish between socially prescribed attitudes and fresher or more authentic experiences;
§ reflect upon the meaning of contemporary or past social practices/texts within their social context in order to understand significant cultural influences/trends;
§ reflect on critical differences between historical or cultural contexts in order to understand their relative meanings or significant cultural differences;
§ reflect on significant cultural differences in order to support more effective cross cultural communication and collaboration;
§ study power relations within a given context to generalise beyond observed interactions and show how those relations are socially structured;
§ show how film, television, fashion or advertising images, literary forms, or other cultural product attain and reproduce meaning;
§ explore the historical development of institutional and discursive practices to show how specific meta statements have been attributed truth status;
§ explore the social and political effects of a specific discourse to evaluate its social impact;
§ identify the linguistic devices that enable a specific narrative.
Key methodological/theoretical questions ─ What assumptions underpin the knowledge I will produce? Do I want to examine: § facts about human beings or the world;
§ a relationship between a set of defined variables or measures with specific predictive value;
§ a subjective experience or life world;
§ the meanings hidden beneath subjective individual accounts;
§ linguistic or other structural determinants that underpin cultural representations and relations;
§ the institutional and historical preconditions and effects of discourse;
§ linguistic, metaphoric or rhetorical device?
Good example study design introduction including objective, method and methodology
In order to assess the impact of management control systems and strategy upon performance in not-for-profit organizations (links from question), the study compared the perceptions of not-for-profit senior executives with performance indicators from their organizations. Senior executives were targeted because they can provide critical information about the overall strategic philosophy of the organization, and they play an instrumental role in defining and building its strategic plan (provides methodological rationale for choice of sample population). From a sample of 400 not-for-profit executives located cross all industry sectors from all states of Australia, one hundred and thirty surveys were collected, and 30 semi-structured interviews were conducted (provides description of method including sample size, survey size, interview type, and number of interviews conducted). Statistical survey results were compared with interview themes in order to illuminate the relationship between management approach and performance outcomes (provides methodological rationale).Research design writing tip
Avoid writing about methods or methodology in a general way. Always link the discussion to your own study.Methodology sentence stems
§ (my method) analysis … in order to …
§ (my method) looks at how … and suggests …
§ (my method) looks at … and their influence on …
§ (my method) describes … and their involvement in …
§ (my method) looks at the process by which …
§ (my method) critiques … and describes how …
Point of view
When writing up the research design, use the point of view of the study, especially for theses following the question/answer style, (‘the study design comprises … ’, ‘the sample population was drawn from …’) or, less commonly, the researcher (‘When sensitive issues arose, I … ’).Tense
Use past tense verb to report methods because these were conducted in the past (for example: ‘interviews were conducted’, ‘surveys were distributed’).Use present tense verb to describe how data are presented in the chapter because this information is still true (‘Results show that …’).
Step 3: Results/evidence
The third step in the story line is to provide the results or discuss the evidence that will answer the question or support the argument. Here you are telling the reader what you found that led you to your conclusions. Evidence might be organized around elements of the method, central themes, theories, ideas, case studies, historical periods, policies, bodies of literature, context, geographical area or other grouping. The important thing is that the discussion is clearly tied to the question or argument of the thesis.In question/answer style theses, the results chapters provide the evidence that will answer the question, without actually providing the answer at this stage.
In argument style theses, each chapter works to support the main idea of the thesis (including the literature review and research design or theory chapters).
Structuring the evidence
If you are unsure about how to divide up your results or evidence chapters, wait until you have a substantial body of writing. Just keep writing without worrying too much about how you will organise the evidence. If a clear structure does not gradually emerge, a mind map can be useful. It is important to ensure that the map is based on statements that answer the question or support the argument. In order to ensure this, write your question or argument (or nearest approximation of your argument at this stage) at the top of the mind map. Under this question or statement write the key results or ideas that answer or support it. Keep checking back and forth to see that the results and statements on the page are closely linked to the big idea or central question at the top. If you are unsure what to write on the mind map, go back to the writing and try to reduce each section, or several pages to a summative statement. Try to keep these statements to less than six. If you have too many, find a higher order label in which two or more topics can be grouped, or draw links between them. Then redraw the map with a composite statement divided by smaller sub topics (these then become the sections within the chapter). Keep going until a clear structure begins to emerge.Once you have determined how to divide up the evidence, some general principles apply to the writing process.
§ Remind the reader of the methodological rationale underpinning the result in the opening sentences of the introductory paragraph. This tells the reader how you want the results or evidence to be read.
§ Report only results or evidence pertinent to the research question or argument.
§ Provide a statement of the main result/s or argument in the introduction.
§ Name the themes or section topics in the chapter or section in the introduction.
§ Give reasons for choice of themes (unless obvious).
§ Refer to themes in the same order throughout the chapter.
§ Report results or evidence in order of importance or persuasiveness (most important first), or chronologically (for staged experiments), or in order of question asked (for survey research).
§ Report all results or evidence pertinent to the question or argument (not just those that support the hypothesis).
§ Use raw data to exemplify larger points explained in the text.
§ Present complex data within figures or tables. If it can be explained just as well in the text, do not provide a figure or table.
§ Provide precise measurements.
Example: thematic analysis results chapter 7, introductory paragraph
Flood, M 2000, Lust, trust and latex: why young heterosexual men don’t use condoms, PhD thesis, The Australian National University, Center for Women Studies (chapter 7).
Safe and unsafe sexual behaviour is shaped by the social meanings attributed to the interpersonal relationships within which sex occurs, and by the meanings given to condom use and non-use in terms of these relationships (theoretical/methodological framing within which results are to be read). In this chapter I trace the operation of such meanings, especially as they relate to two patterns among young heterosexual men: they rarely use condoms in regular relationships and they often discontinue condom use early in their sexual involvements (names themes discussed in the chapter). This pattern is typical of the progression of relationships among young heterosexuals, in which, once first intercourse has occurred and if a sexual relationship continues, the woman is likely to go on the pill if she had not been using it before (Wight, 1992; Holland, 1991a) (substantiates significance of themes with references). I find that the notion of “trust” is pivotal in men’s perceptions of sexual involvements, and that condom use is understood as contrary to trust (main finding to be discussed in this chapter). Write the result or main point first and then follow with the data
One way to ensure you are summarising, synthesising and interpreting data within the main body of the chapter, rather than simply reporting it, is to provide the result first followed with a description of the data that supports it. This will avoid a results section that reads like a long list of figures and tables, or quotes from research subjects with little story line to explain them.Poor example of results statement
Zeiger, M 2000, Essentials of writing biomedical research papers, Second ed, New York, McGraw-Hill, pp. 154-175.
In the 20 control subjects, the mean resting blood pressure was 85+5 (SD) mmHg. In comparison, in the 30 tennis players, the mean resting blood pressure was 94+3 mmHg (unclear what point we are to draw from the data, whether the data are similar or different). Better example
The mean resting blood pressure was 10% higher in the 30 tennis players than in the 20 control subjects. In the 20 control subjects, the mean resting blood pressure was 85+5 (SD) mmHg. In comparison, in the 30 tennis players, the mean resting blood pressure was 94+3 mmHg (provides clear and precise statement of the magnitude of the difference).In descriptive theses, the same rule applies. Ensure that paragraphs have clear topic sentences which state the key point of the section. In the writing process you will often find that the main idea does not appear until the end of a piece of writing. This is because we tend to write our way toward the main idea, clarifying our thoughts as we write up the data. The reader should not have to wait this long for the main point. Redrafting then often involves dragging summative statements forward and placing them at the beginning of paragraphs and sections, and then checking that the information supplied in that section works to support the idea or result in the opening sentence.
Explain how a result is significant
Instead of stating that a result is significant, explain the significance of the result. For example: instead of saying 'Results for the distance travelled were highly significant', try 'While the average distance travelled is five kilometres, the sample population travelled on average 10 kilometres further. This is explained by ...'Figures, tables and graphs:
Zeiger, M 2000, Essentials of writing biomedical research papers, Second ed, New York, McGraw-Hill, pp. 154-175.
§ are necessary only when they provide information that expands upon, or cannot be explained in the text;
§ should contain sufficient information to enable them to stand alone;
§ are always discussed in the text;
§ use titles to describe core content, (name of variables, type of analysis);
§ are clearly and consistently labelled and numbered;
§ are listed at the beginning of the thesis;
§ list one column of data per heading;
§ should be uncluttered.
Refer to figures and tables in the flow of the discussion. Avoid using a figure or table title as a topic sentence. Instead, cite tables and figures in brackets after relevant results statements. Poor example results topic sentence
‘A summary of renal function data is presented in Fig. 2’.Better example results topic sentence
‘Renal function data showed that …. (Figure 2)’.Experimental theses
Zeiger, M 2000, Essentials of writing biomedical research papers, Second ed, New York, McGraw-Hill, pp. 154-175.
When all experiments are designed in advance, the overview of the experiments is provided in the study design section of the introduction or methods and materials chapter or section. The results chapters then simply supply the results that answer the question in the order of most to least important. Each result is placed in the lead sentence within a separate paragraph. When one experiment determines the next experiment, there may be no study design section. Instead, use a four part pattern in the results chapter/s in which each repeat of the pattern has a separate paragraph or section including the following elements: question, overview of the experiments, results, answer to the question.
Information that explains the background, reasoning and purpose of a question or experiment can also be included where relevant. In this sense, each paragraph or section contains in miniature the steps that tell the overall thesis story.
In studies in which one experiment determines the next experiment, the first question in the chapter is the question of the thesis. Each paragraph or section after that opens with the question posed to answer the next step toward the final answer of the thesis. Each answer then leads to the next question and the four part pattern. The answer at the end of the results chapter is the answer to the overall thesis question.
For studies where one experiment determines the next, clearly signal the result
In studies in which one experiment determines the next experiment, results can get buried within sections or paragraphs. They should therefore be clearly signalled with phrases like ‘we found’ or ‘it was observed’. Such phrases would preferably be placed in the ‘power position’ of sentences or the beginning of the sentence.Step 4: Discussion and conclusion
The final step in the story line of the research thesis or article is to provide the answer to the question, or, in the descriptive style, to summarise the argument and the main evidence used to support it. This is followed by a discussion of the significance of the research and the implications arising from the research.The goal of the conclusion is to highlight the importance of the thesis statement, to draw together the discussion into a final point, and to leave a lasting impression on the reader. In the same way that the thesis or paper opens with a statement of a problem that is of broad concern, it should close with commentary that highlights the take home message. The aim in the conclusion is to make this message as clear and accessible as possible.
Although, from the writer's point of view the conclusion can seem like an afterthought, for the reader it is critical. Many examiners read the introduction and conclusion before venturing into the main body of the thesis. By this time they may have already formed an impression of the quality of the thesis.
One way to ensure you don't run out of steam at the end of the thesis and neglect the conclusion is to note down concluding thoughts as you write the literature review, results and methodology. This is because your best thoughts will often occur during the conceptual phases of the research, at the beginning and middle of the research process, and not at the end when you are tired and possibly bored with the topic. As you write and edit the other chapters in the thesis write down or save any concluding thoughts that occur to you as you go and file these in the concluding chapter. These comments can then form useful prompts when you come to write the concluding chapter.
Some theses have separate discussion and conclusion chapters or sections. In these theses, the difference between the discussion and conclusion is one of inference. The discussion chapter or section discusses actual results. Conclusions are more speculative in tone, exploring the possible implications of the results. In many qualitative theses, results or findings are difficult to disentangle from the discussion and are combined within the main body of the thesis.
The conclusion includes:
§ summative statement of the major argument or findings (and whether they are definitive or tentative);
§ brief explanation of why the research was conducted (optional);
§ brief explanation of how the research was conducted (optional);
§ synthesis of the main results or evidence that support the thesis;
§ the wider implications and significance of the research;
§ plan of action or proposal arising from the research (optional)
§ research directions suggested by the findings (optional).
The significance of the research and the proposals flowing from the research might be discussed in relation to one or more of the following: § the community in the ‘real world’;
§ policy development (government, organisational, business etc);
§ professional practice (as an academic or other profession – teacher, pharmacist, artist, nurse, engineer, manager etc);
§ contribution to academic debates;
§ income generating capacity;
§ social or political action and research.
A discussion of implications in the conclusion might include: Taylor, G 1989 The student’s writing guide for the arts and social sciences, Cambridge University Press.
§ proposing further research (PROPOSING);
§ assessments of present or past approaches to the subject (REVALUING);
§ issues arising from your more narrow, more empirical work for more general, more theoretical, or different work (GENERALISING, EXTRAPOLATING);
§ illuminations arising from your general or more theoretical work for particular, empirical questions (CONTEXTUALISING);
§ solutions to practical or applied problems (RECOMMENDING, APPLYING);
§ predictions about what might happen in the future given your analysis of some present or contemporary issue (PREDICTING);
§ anticipating events outside the immediate focus of the thesis given your analysis of some past event or situation (ANTICIPATING).
Questions to guide writing the discussion and conclusion From Crasswell, G 2005, Writing for academic success: A postgraduate guide, Sage, London. p201
Processing findings (Discussion)1. What do I consider most important about my findings in general and why?
2. Which findings seem to be of greater or lesser significance and why?
3. Are there any specific findings to which I want to draw particular attention and why?
4. Is there anything unusual about any of my findings needing special mention and why?
5. Has my methodology or anything else affected my interpretation of findings and is this something that needs to be discussed (for example biases inbuilt into the research design)?
Drawing out implications (Conclusion) 1. To what extent do my findings align with those of other scholars, in what precise ways, and if not why not?
2. If certain findings suggest a need for further research, what might this consist in and how might such research extend or improve the current state of knowledge in my field?
Link the introduction and conclusion
Try reading the introduction and the conclusion one after another. They should flow. If you have used examples, metaphors or other illustration to highlight the problem or significance of the research, you might return to the same device in the final chapter to draw out the conclusions.In question/answer style theses, the question and answer should lead from one to the other without disjunction. This can be achieved by using similar phrasing for the question and the answer. The answer should be provided in the opening sentence of the conclusion.
Question/answer example
From Erica Martens Thesis Writing Workshop 1994.
Question/introduction: This study aims to determine whether the inclusion of feminist theory in the curriculum in South Australian primary schools reduced sexist behaviour in the schoolyard. Answer/conclusion: Sexist behaviour is being reported and observed in rates which have no relation to the level of inclusion of feminist theories into the curriculum design. Formal education has a very tenuous influence on the behaviour patterns of school children.
Synthesise, don't repeat
You can avoid repeating information that has already been provided by drawing the findings together into an overall point that has not been made yet. The sum may be a more powerful conveyor of meaning than the parts.You can avoid writing a conclusion that reads like a menu of chapters (‘chapter 3 showed ...', 'Chapter 4 showed ...') by opening with a statement of the evidence and providing the chapter in a bracket at the end of the sentence.
Go out with a bang
Use the last paragraph or sentence of the thesis to provide closure to its overall questions. Pay attention to this paragraph and sentence; draft with care.A note on 'recommendations'
Conclusions offer solutions to issues and suggest courses of action flowing from the research. However, the aim of research is primarily to produce knowledge, not law, policy or a set of recommendations. We cannot ultimately control how our ideas are interpreted or implemented in the world. By maintaining a scholarly tone and exploring the possible implications of your ideas in broad terms, you can avoid dating your research unnecessarily, or limiting the reader's imagination to a specific set of outcomes.If you are worried that the research will not be powerful enough without a specific set of recommendations, it might be helpful to remember the old adage, 'the pen is mightier than the sword'. All change starts with an idea.
Conclusion
§ Use power positions at the beginning and ending of chapters, sections, paragraphs, and sentences to provide critical information.
§ Foreground the conceptual steps in the story line.
§ Foreground the central 'thesis'.
§ Keep the focus on the research story at all times.
§ Do not describe literature, methods or theory in a general way.
§ Do not report irrelevant twists and turns of the research process. You are addressing a question, not relating an experience.
§ Do not report what you have learned unless it is part of your research design or supports the thesis in some other way.
§ Do not write about standardised procedures or tangential information.
Example thesis structures
For examples of different kinds of thesis style, structure, methodological orientation and discipline background please see the example summaries provided. Each summary outlines the major conceptual steps in the thesis story line, and the chapter in which it appears. PDF files of these and other theses can be accessed at Australian Digital Theses Online. The library also offers workshops to assist you in accessing online theses.References
Crasswell, G 2005, Writing for academic success: A postgraduate guide, Sage, London. p201
Metcalf, M 2002, How to critique articles.
Partridge, B ‘Thesis and dissertation writing: An examination of published articles and actual practice’, in English for Specific Purposes.
Taylor, G 1989 The student’s writing guide for the arts and social sciences, Cambridge University Press. Writing Lab, Purdue University:
Zeigler, M 2000, Essentials of writing biomedical research papers, Second edition, McGraw Hill, New York.
This web resource was developed by Wendy Bastalich. 
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