Sociology of education

The sociology of education is the study of how public institutions and individual experiences affect education and its outcomes. It is most concerned with the public schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including the expansion of higher, further, adult, and continuing education.
Education has always been seen as a fundamentally optimistic human endeavour characterized by aspirations for progress and betterment. It is understood by many to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and social status. Education is perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potential. It is also perceived as one of the best means of achieving greater social equality. Many would say that the purpose of education should be to develop every individual to their full potential and give them a chance to achieve as much in life as their natural abilities allow (meritocracy). Few would argue that any education system accomplishes this goal perfectly. Some take a particularly negative view, arguing that the education system is designed with the intention of causing the social reproduction of inequality.

History

A systematic sociology of education began with Émile Durkheim's work on moral education as a basis for organic solidarity and that by Max Weber, on the Chinese literati as an instrument of political control. It was after World War II, however, that the subject received renewed interest around the world: from technological functionalism in the US, egalitarian reform of opportunity in Europe, and human-capital theory in economics. These all implied that, with industrialization, the need for a technologically-skilled labour force undermines class distinctions and other ascription systems of stratification, and that education promotes social mobility. However, statistical and field research across numerous societies showed a persistent link between an individual's social class and achievement, and suggested that education could only achieve limited social mobility. Sociological studies showed how schooling patterns reflected, rather than challenged, class stratification and racial and sexual discrimination. After the general collapse of functionalism from the late 1960s onwards, the idea of education as an unmitigated good was even more profoundly challenged. Neo-Marxists argued that school education simply produced a docile labour-force essential to late-capitalist class relations.

Theoretical perspectives

The sociology of education contains a number of theories. The work of each theory is presented below.

1-Structural functionalism

Structural functionalists believe that society leans towards equilibrium and social order. They see society like a human body, in which institutions such as education are like important organs that keep the society/body healthy and well. Social health means the same as social order, and is guaranteed when nearly everyone accepts the general moral values of their society. Hence structural functionalists believe the aim of key institutions, such as education, is to socialize children and teenagers. Socialization is the process by which the new generation learns the knowledge, attitudes and values that they will need as productive citizens. Although this aim is stated in the formal curriculum, it is mainly achieved through "the hidden curriculum", a subtler, but nonetheless powerful, indoctrination of the norms and values of the wider society. Students learn these values because their behaviour at school is regulated [Durkheim in until they gradually internalize and accept them. Education must, however perform another function. As various jobs become vacant, they must be filled with the appropriate people. Therefore the other purpose of education is to sort and rank individuals for placement in the labour market [Munro, 1997]. Those with high achievement will be trained for the most important jobs and in reward, be given the highest incomes. Those who achieve the least, will be given the least demanding (intellectually at any rate, if not physically) jobs, and hence the least income.
According to Sennet and Cobb however, “to believe that ability alone decides who is rewarded is to be deceived”. Meighan agrees, stating that large numbers of capable students from working class backgrounds fail to achieve satisfactory standards in school and therefore fail to obtain the status they deserve. Jacob believes this is because the middle class cultural experiences that are provided at school may be contrary to the experiences working-class children receive at home. In other words, working class children are not adequately prepared to cope at school. They are therefore “cooled out” from school with the least qualifications, hence they get the least desirable jobs, and so remain working class. Sargent confirms this cycle, arguing that schooling supports continuity, which in turn supports social order.Talcott Parsons believed that this process, whereby some students were identified and labelled educational failures, “was a necessary activity which one part of the social system, education, performed for the whole”. Yet the structural functionalist perspective maintains that this social order, this continuity, is what most people desire. The weakness of this perspective thus becomes evident. Why would the working class wish to stay working class? Such an inconsistency demonstrates that another perspective may be useful.

2-Education and social reproduction

The perspective of conflict theory, contrary to the structural functionalist perspective, believes that society is full of vying social groups with different aspirations, different access to life chances and gain different social rewards. Relations in society, in this view, are mainly based on exploitation, oppression, domination and subordination.
Many teachers assume that students will have particular middle class experiences at home, and for some children this assumption isn’t necessarily true. Some children are expected to help their parents after school and carry considerable domestic responsibilities in their often single-parent home. The demands of this domestic labour often make it difficult for them to find time to do all their homework and thus affects their academic performance.
Where teachers have softened the formality of regular study and integrated student’s preferred working methods into the curriculum, they noted that particular students displayed strengths they had not been aware of before. However few teachers deviate from the traditional curriculum, and the curriculum conveys what constitutes knowledge as determined by the state - and those in power Young in This knowledge isn’t very meaningful to many of the students, who see it as pointless. Wilson & Wyn state that the students realise there is little or no direct link between the subjects they are doing and their perceived future in the labour market. Anti-school values displayed by these children are often derived from their consciousness of their real interests. Sargent believes that for working class students, striving to succeed and absorbing the school's middle class values, is accepting their inferior social position as much as if they were determined to fail. Fitzgerald states that “irrespective of their academic ability or desire to learn, students from poor families have relatively little chance of securing success”. On the other hand, for middle and especially upper-class children, maintaining their superior position in society requires little effort. The federal government subsidises ‘independent’ private schools enabling the rich to obtain ‘good education’ by paying for it. With this ‘good education’, rich children perform better, achieve higher and obtain greater rewards. In this way, the continuation of privilege and wealth for the elite is made possible.
Conflict theorists believe this social reproduction continues to occur because the whole education system is overlain with ideology provided by the dominant group. In effect, they perpetuate the myth that education is available to all to provide a means of achieving wealth and status. Anyone who fails to achieve this goal, according to the myth, has only themself to blame. Wright agrees, stating that “the effect of the myth is to…stop them from seeing that their personal troubles are part of major social issues”. The duplicity is so successful that many parents endure appalling jobs for many years, believing that this sacrifice will enable their children to have opportunities in life that they did not have themselves. These people who are poor and disadvantaged are victims of a societal confidence trick. They have been encouraged to believe that a major goal of schooling is to strengthen equality while, in reality, schools reflect society’s intention to maintain the previous unequal distribution of status and power.
This perspective has been criticized as deterministic, pessimistic and allowing no room for the agency of individuals to improve their situation.
It should be recognized however that it is a model, an aspect of reality which is an important part of the picture.

Theories of Education

Historically, American education served both political and economic needs, which dictated the function of education. Today, sociologists and educators debate the function of education. Three main theories represent their views: the functionalist theory, the conflict theory, and the symbolic interactionist theory.

 The functionalist theory

The functionalist theory focuses on the ways that universal education serves the needs of society. Functionalists first see education in its manifest role: conveying basic knowledge and skills to the next generation. Durkheim (the founder of functionalist theory) identified the latent role of education as one of socializing people into society's mainstream. This “moral education,” as he called it, helped form a more-cohesive social structure by bringing together people from diverse backgrounds, which echoes the historical concern of “Americanizing” immigrants.

Functionalists point to other latent roles of education such as transmission of core values and social control. The core values in American education reflect those characteristics that support the political and economic systems that originally fueled education. Therefore, children in America receive rewards for following schedules, following directions, meeting deadlines, and obeying authority.

The most important value permeating the American classroom is individualism—the ideology that advocates the liberty rights, or independent action, of the individual. American students learn early, unlike their Japanese or Chinese counterparts, that society seeks out and reveres the best individual, whether that person achieves the best score on a test or the most points on the basketball court. Even collaborative activities focus on the leader, and team sports single out the one most valuable player of the year. The carefully constructed curriculum helps students develop their identities and self-esteem. Conversely, Japanese students, in a culture that values community in place of individuality, learn to be ashamed if someone singles them out, and learn social esteem—how to bring honor to the group, rather than to themselves.

Going to school in a capitalist nation, American students also quickly learn the importance of competition, through both competitive learning games in the classroom, and through activities and athletics outside the classroom. Some kind of prize or reward usually motivates them to play, so students learn early to associate winning with possessing. Likewise, schools overtly teach patriotism, a preserver of political structure. Students must learn the Pledge of Allegiance and the stories of the nation's heroes and exploits. The need to instill patriotic values is so great that mythology often takes over, and teachers repeat stories of George Washington's honesty or Abraham Lincoln's virtue even though the stories themselves (such as Washington confessing to chopping down the cherry tree) may be untrue.

Another benefit that functionalists see in education is sorting—separating students on the basis of merit. Society's needs demand that the most capable people get channeled into the most important occupations. Schools identify the most capable students early. Those who score highest on classroom and standardized tests enter accelerated programs and college-preparation courses. Sociologists Talcott Parsons, Kingsley Davis, and Wilbert Moore referred to this as social placement. They saw this process as a beneficial function in society.

After sorting has taken place, the next function of education, networking (making interpersonal connections), is inevitable. People in high school and college network with those in similar classes and majors. This networking may become professional or remain personal. The most significant role of education in this regard is matchmaking. Sociologists primarily interest themselves in how sorting and networking lead couples together of similar backgrounds, interests, education, and income potential. People place so much importance on this function of education that some parents limit their children's options for college to insure that they attend schools where they can meet the “right” person to marry.

Functionalists point to the ironic dual role of education in both preserving and changing culture. Studies show that, as students progress through college and beyond, they usually become increasingly liberal as they encounter a variety of perspectives. Thus, more educated individuals are generally more liberal, while less educated people tend toward conservatism. Moreover, the heavy emphasis on research at most institutions of higher education puts them on the cutting edge of changes in knowledge, and, in many cases, changes in values as well. Therefore, while the primary role of education is to preserve and pass on knowledge and skills, education is also in the business of transforming them.

A final and controversial function assumed by education in the latter half of the twentieth century is replacement of the family. Many issues of career development, discipline, and human sexuality—once the domain of the family—now play a routine part in school curriculum. Parents who reject this function of education often choose to home-school their children or place them in private schools that support their values.

The conflict theory

Conflict theory sees the purpose of education as maintaining social inequality and preserving the power of those who dominate society. Conflict theorists examine the same functions of education as functionalists. Functionalists see education as a beneficial contribution to an ordered society; however, conflict theorists see the educational system as perpetuating the status quo by dulling the lower classes into being obedient workers.

Both functionalists and conflict theorists agree that the educational system practices sorting, but they disagree about how it enacts that sorting. Functionalists claim that schools sort based upon merit; conflict theorists argue that schools sort along distinct class and ethnic lines. According to conflict theorists, schools train those in the working classes to accept their position as a lower-class member of society. Conflict theorists call this role of education the “hidden curriculum.”

Conflict theorists point to several key factors in defending their position. First, property taxes fund most schools; therefore, schools in affluent districts have more money. Such areas are predominantly white. They can afford to pay higher salaries, attract better teachers, and purchase newer texts and more technology. Students who attend these schools gain substantial advantages in getting into the best colleges and being tracked into higher-paying professions. Students in less affluent neighborhoods that do not enjoy these advantages are less likely to go to college and are more likely to be tracked into vocational or technical training. They also represent far higher numbers of minority students.

Conflict theorists contend that not only do the economics favor the white affluent, but so does school testing—particularly IQ testing, which schools can use to sort students. They argue that the tests, which claim to test intelligence, actually test cultural knowledge and therefore exhibit a cultural bias. For example, a question may ask: “Which one of these items belongs in an orchestra? A. accordion B. guitar C. violin D. banjo.” This question assumes considerable cultural knowledge, including what an orchestra is, how it differs from a band, and what instruments comprise an orchestra. The question itself assumes exposure to a particular kind of music favored by white upper classes. Testing experts claim they have rid modern exams of such culturally biased questioning, but conflict theorists respond that cultural neutrality is impossible. All tests contain a knowledge base, and that knowledge base is always culturally sensitive.

Conflict theorists see education not as a social benefit or opportunity, but as a powerful means of maintaining power structures and creating a docile work force for capitalism.

The symbolic interactionist theory

Symbolic interactionists limit their analysis of education to what they directly observe happening in the classroom. They focus on how teacher expectations influence student performance, perceptions, and attitudes.

Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson conducted the landmark study for this approach in 1968. First, they examined a group of students with standard IQ tests. The researchers then identified a number of students who they said would likely show a sharp increase in abilities over the coming year. They informed the teachers of the results, and asked them to watch and see if this increase did occur. When the researchers repeated the IQ tests at the end of the year, the students identified by the researchers did indeed show higher IQ scores. The significance of this study lies in the fact that the researchers had randomly selected a number of average students. The researchers found that when the teachers expected a particular performance or growth, it occurred. This phenomenon, where a false assumption actually occurs because someone predicted it, is called a self-fulfilling prophesy. For example, the stock market may be stable with rising values. If investors become afraid that the market will crash, however, they may suddenly sell their stocks, which causes the market to crash. The crash occurred simply because investors feared it would do so.

Ray Rist conducted research similar to the Rosenthal-Jacobson study in 1970. In a kindergarten classroom where both students and teacher were African American, the teacher assigned students to tables based on ability; the “better” students sat at a table closer to her, the “average” students sat at the next table, and the “weakest” students sat at the farthest table. Rist discovered that the teacher assigned the students to a table based on the teacher's perception of the students' skill levels on the eighth day of class, without any form of testing to verify the placement. Rist also found that the students the teacher perceived as “better” learners came from higher social classes, while the “weak” students were from lower social classes.

Monitoring the students through the year, Rist found that the students closer to the teacher received the most attention and performed better. The farther from the teacher a student sat, the weaker that student performed. Rist continued the study through the next several years and found that the labels assigned to the students on the eighth day of kindergarten followed them throughout their schooling.

While symbolic-interactionist sociologists can document this process, they have yet to define the exact process of how teachers form their expectations or how students may communicate subtle messages to teachers about intelligence, skill, and so forth.

Role of State in Education

States have the legal responsibility and authority to provide public Education for their citizens. How each state fulfills its responsibility varies. Whether state education agencies are supporting education reform efforts, providing technical assistance, defining and controlling educational content, or assessing the outcomes of education. It is generally agreed that state is  there to assure that colleges and schools are providing quality opportunities to adults and children, and in a manner that meets the standards the state has set for achievement.

A variety of studies provide evidence that the s of college-educated persons  have fundamental effects on state and local economies through its association with wages, economic  growth, personal incomes, and tax revenues. As a result, policymakers in many countries try to increase the percentage of the state’s population (or workforce) that has a college degree through the use of various higher-education policies that have the potential to influence the supply side of the labor market. Several types of policies related to the finance and production of graduate and undergraduate education within a state, including expansions in degree production and scholarships to encourage attendance at in-state colleges are discussed.  More research is needed to identify the causal effects of the policies on the behavior of students and to sort out the responses by students and institutions to make changes in state policies. Following are the areas where states play a vital role:

Financing: The basic role of Sate is to finance the education set up, since countries spent a considerable amount of their GDP in education which ranges from 4% to 12% , at the end a data sheet is attached which shows the investment on education by developing countries of the region, may be this indicate why these nations are still developing.

Providing Policies: State provides the basic infrastructure and policies to be followed on, as the private sector also plays its part along with the public sector. So in our country State provide the Education Polices. It is interested to note here that after independence  state has given the policies showing different perspective , and we have experience Nationalization, Islamization and Privatization in a short period of time, and now we are experiencing public private partnership in education .

Curriculum Planning

 Curriculum is that pivot on which all the system of education reveals, it also affects the future of the nations, too hence the basic theme of primary & secondary education is conceived and produced by the state. As in our country Federal Bureau of Curriculum Islamabad gives the guideline in the light of Federal Government Policies while provincial bureaus of curriculum function under the directions of Federal Bureau of Curriculum. In Sindh province Bureau of Curriculum & Extension Wing Jamshoro is responsible for the preparing the curriculum of primary and secondary classes while Sindh Text Book Board helps in providing test books .

Scholarships & youth exchange programs

 Another important role of state is to provide national and international scholarships for deserving students like in our country Higher Education Commission (HEC) did in recent years. Moreover world wide youth exchange programs are developed to broaden the vision of upcoming generation.

 

Profit Share of States Investment in Education

 Plato was the first philosopher who declared Education as a state matte, he said that providing free education is the states responsibility. Since then it is the responsibility of States, but in return the State gets the following benefits:

o      Increase in per capital income

o      Increase in individual earnings

o      Increase in earning capacity

o      Highly skilled professionals and labour

o      More taxes

o      High efficiency

o      Economic growth

o      No unemployment risk

o      Increase in human capital asset

o      Search for new resources

o      Better social system

o      More social return

o      National prosperity

Pakistan’s Investment in Education

According to World Bank statistics, Pakistan spends only 2.3% of its Gross National Income (GNI) on education and this figure is very low even among the poor countries. Even the average for South Asian countries is 3.6%. Well, one do not need to be an expert to understand that if a country does not invest on education then it is bound to have high rate of illiteracy and Pakistan has an illiteracy rate of 58.9%. It is surely among one of the highest rates in Asia and with such a high rate of illiteracy, no country can dream of improving its economy.

Fortunately, Pakistani decision makers have understood the value of investment in education and it is expected that in the next annual budget, allocation for education will be substantially increased. The increase in investment should touch both primary education and higher education. On the one hand, there should be more teachers in the primary education in Pakistan while on the other hand, there should be more fund for carrying out research in the university level.

Recent Position of Pakistan’s investment in Education

The very scale of Pakistan’s education sector -- more than 150,000 public education institutions serving over 21 million students and a huge private sector that serves another 12 million – presents formidable challenges.

Literacy in Pakistan rose from 45 to 54 percent between 2002 and 2006, and net primary enrollment rates increased from 42 to 52 percent. But Pakistan’s participation rates remain the lowest in South Asia and there are wide male-female, inter-regional and rural-urban disparities:
 Only 22 percent of girls, compared to 47 percent boys, complete primary schooling
Female literacy in rural Balochistan is only 32 percent compared to high urban male literacy rates (80 percent among urban male in Sindh).

School dropout rates are high starting, especially, at the secondary level:
 Only 30 percent of Pakistan’s children receive secondary education
 Only 19 percent attend upper secondary schools

Expanding and modernizing vocational and tertiary education
Better access, teaching and research are needed at the tertiary level to equip graduates with the high-level skills needed to build a knowledge economy. Currently
 Tertiary enrollment rates are less than 5 percent of the eligible age cohort (17-23).
 Less than 8 percent of the work force receives formal training.

 Education quality and governance
The above mentioned challenges call for improvements in governance and greater accountability on the part of education service providers. This requires:
- Continued government commitment to education and policy reforms.
- Capacity building in institutions delivering education services.
- Increased investment in education which, currently at 2.3 percent of GDP, is among the lowest in South Asia.

Education, the modern perspective

The importance of learning in enabling the individual to put his potentials to optimal use is self-evident. Without education, the training of the human minds is incomplete. No individual is a human being in the working world until he has been educated in the proper sense. Now I'm not saying you're not a human being without education. The mind was made to be trained and without education, a person is incomplete in that sense. Education makes man a right thinker and a correct decision-maker. It achieves this by bringing him knowledge from the external world, teaching him to reason, and acquainting him with past history, so that he may be a better judge of the present. Without education, man, as it were, is shut up in a windowless room. With education, he finds himself in a room with all its windows open to the outside world. In other words, people who are not educated have less opportunity to do what they want to do.
A person that gets a good education will become a more dependable worker, a better citizen, and a stronger consumer. For example, people would rather higher an educated man rather than a non-educated person.   When looking at the long-term effects of an education, our economy needs these educated people to know how to keep the economy efficient and not get into a bind in the future. Someone said if they were Bill Gates, would he understand the economy better? Of course not but that's not what I am trying to say. How advanced do you think the computer would be without him? The more educated someone is, the more knowledge one obtains on different subjects. Each person has a different level of understanding for each subject there is to learn about. That is why there are experts in every field you could go into and each part is a piece of the puzzle that makes this world/economy grow.
Since technology has come as far as it has in the past decades, there are important skills that must be learnt. Here it is important to note that the learning opportunities are provided by the  state only, so it is important to learn about the role of state in spreading education.

Importance of Education in Islam

 Islam attaches a great importance to knowledge and education. The Qur’an, it should be noted repeatedly asks us to observe the earth and heavens. This instills in man the desire to learn natural science. When the Qur’an began to be revealed, the first word of its first verse was ‘Iqra!’ that is, ‘Read.’ Education is thus the starting point of every successful human activity.

All the books of Hadith have a chapter on knowledge (ilm). In Sahih Bukhari, there is a chapter entitled, "The virtue of one who acquires ilm (learning) and imparts it to others. In the Hadith, the scholar is accorded great respect. According to one tradition, the ink of a scholar’s pen is more precious than the blood of a martyr, the reason being that while a martyr is engaged in the task of defense, an alim (scholar) builds individuals and nations along positive lines. In this way, he bestows upon the world a real life treasure.

The very great importance attached to learning in Islam is illustrated by an event in the life of the Prophet. At the battle of Badr, in which the Prophet was victorious, seventy of his enemies were taken prisoner. Now these captives were all literate people. So, in order to benefit from their erudition, the Prophet declared that if each prisoner taught ten Madinah children how to read and write, that would serve as his ransom and he would be set free. This was the first school in the history of Islam, established by the Prophet himself. It was of no matter to him that all its teachers were non-Muslims, all were prisoners of war, and all were likely to create problems again for Islam and Muslims once they were released. This Sunnah of the Prophet showed that whatever the risk involved, education was paramount.

Islam not only stresses the importance of learning, but demonstrates how all the factors necessary to progress in learning have been provided by Almighty. An especially vital factor is the freedom to conduct research. Such freedom was encouraged right from the beginning, as is illustrated by an incident which took place after the Prophet had migrated from Mecca to Medina. There he saw some people atop the date palms pollinating them. Since dates were not grown in Mecca the Prophet had to ask what these people were doing to the trees. He thereupon forbade them to do this, and the following year date crop was very poor as compared to previous year. When the Prophet asked the reason, he was told that the yield depended on pollination. He then told the date-growers to resume this practice, admitting that they knew more about "worldly matters" than he did.

In this way, the Prophet separated practical matters from religion, thus paving the way for the free conduct of research throughout the world of nature and the adoption of conclusions based thereon. This great emphasis placed on exact knowledge resulted in the awakening of a great desire for learning among the Muslims of the first phase. This process began in Mecca, then reached Medinah and Damascus, later centering on Baghdad. Ultimately it entered Spain. Spain flourished, with extraordinary progress made in various academic and scientific disciplines. This flood of scientific progress then entered Europe, ultimately ushering in the modern, scientific age.

What is Education?

Education is an essential component of life. It is a self-enlightening process that brings about an awareness of the world around us. It develops our perspective of gaining knowledge, which opens up limitless opportunities improving the academic aspects of life. While some say that education merely points out the process of gaining information about the world we live in, some say that the procurement of knowledge is mainly caused by having the right education. So why is education so important? The answer is simply because it covers valuable life lessons and more.
Since we live in an information age that is mostly marked by industrial labor and professional careers in various fields, today’s employers are more likely to hire people who have finished at least college.

The field of education, covering ethics, religion, skills and general knowledge, is a very broad and very vital one. The importance of learning in enabling the individual to put his potentials to optimal use is self-evident. Without education, the training of the human minds is incomplete. No individual is a human being in the proper sense until he has been educated.

Education makes man a right thinker and a correct decision-maker. It achieves this by bringing him knowledge from the external world, teaching him to reason, and acquainting him with past history, so that he may be a better judge of the present. Without education, man, as it were, is shut up in a windowless room. With education, he finds himself in a room with all its windows open to the outside world.

Hypothesis

 1. A tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation.

2. Something taken to be true for the purpose of argument or investigation; an assumption.

3. The antecedent of a conditional statement.

Definition:

A statement that explains or makes generalizations about a set of facts or principles, usually forming a basis for possible experiments to confirm its viability.

Hypothesis is defined as a mere assumption or guess.

 A hypothesis is the main point that you want to prove in a experiment. With out a hypothesis the data that you have collected, is just that data. To create a hypothesis you gather all your data and form a opinion on that data.

 The definition of hypothesis is 'a proposition assumed as a premise in an argument'. A hypothesis is a guess at something to propose a conclusion.

  WHAT IS A HYPOTHESIS?

An hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation or postulate by the researcher of what the researcher considers the outcome of an investigation will be.   It is an informed/educated guess.

It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding certain variables.  It is the most specific way in which an answer to a problem can be stated.

Mouton's (1990: Chapter 6) and Guy's (1987: 116) presentation of the hypothesis:

Mouton:

Statement postulating a possible relationship between two or more phenomena or variables. 

Guy:

A statement describing a phenomenon or which specifies a relationship between two or more phenomena.

 WHEN IS AN HYPOTHESIS FORMULATED?

An hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated and the literature study has been concluded.  It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the theoretical and empirical background to the problem.

 

THE PURPOSE AND FUNCTION OF A HYPOTHESIS

• It offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be empirically tested.
• It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background knowledge to enable him/her to make suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge.
• It gives direction to an investigation.
• It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem.

 CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYPOTHESIS

• It should have elucidating power.
• It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the phenomenon.
• It must be verifiable.
• It must be formulated in simple, understandable terms.
• It should correspond with existing knowledge.

    TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

Hypotheses can be classified in terms of their derivation (inductive and deductive hypotheses) and in terms of their formulation (research - directional and non-directional and statistical or null hypotheses).

• RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

It is a relationship between variables and indicates the nature of the relationship.

If A is valid, B follows...

If you hit a child with a Cain, he/she will cry.

Schools in which pupil-teacher relations are open/friendly will have less unrest than comparable schools where pupil-teacher relations are closed/tense.

• NULL HYPOTHESIS

"You are wrong, there is no relation; disprove me if you can" (Kerlinger, 1973)

There is no difference between pupil-teacher relations in unrest schools and pupil-teacher relations in comparable schools which experience no unrest.

NB

• An important requirement for hypotheses is TESTABILITY.
• A condition for testability is CLEAR and UNAMBIGUOUS CONCEPTS.
• A research hypothesis (in empirical research) has to do with relationships between empirical phenomena.  The concepts in a research hypothesis must posses’ single references (indicators) or denotations to identifiable phenomena in reality.
• A central theoretical thesis refers to hypotheses in more theoretical studies.

Counseling in different school levels

Elementary school counseling

Elementary school counselors provide academic, career, college access, and personal and social competencies and planning to all students, and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the developmental needs of young children K-6. Transitions from pre-school to elementary school and from elementary school to middle school are an important focus for elementary school counselors. Increased emphasis is placed on accountability for closing achievement and opportunity gaps at the elementary level as more school counseling programs move to evidence-based work with data and specific results.
School counseling programs that deliver specific competencies to all students help to close achievement and opportunity gaps. To facilitate individual and group school counseling interventions, school counselors use developmental, cognitive-behavioral, person-centered (Rogerian) listening and influencing skills, systemic, family, multicultural, narrative, and play therapy theories and techniques, released a research study showing the effectiveness of elementary school counseling programs in Washington state.

Middle school counseling

Middle school counselors provide school counseling curriculum lessons on academic, career, college access, and personal and social competencies, advising and academic/career/college access planning to all students and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the needs of older children/early adolescents in grades 7 and 8.
Middle School College Access curricula have been developed by The College Board to assist students and their families well before reaching high school. To facilitate the school counseling process, school counselors use theories and techniques including developmental, cognitive-behavioral, person-centered (Rogerian) listening and influencing skills, sytemic, family, multicultural, narrative, and play therapy. Transitional issues to ensure successful transitions to high school are a key area including career exploration and assessment with seventh and eighth grade students. Sink, Akos, Turnbull, & Mvududu released a study in 2008 confirming the effectiveness of middle school comprehensive school counseling programs in Washington state.

 High school counseling

High school counselors provide academic, career, college access, and personal and social competencies with developmental classroom lessons and planning to all students, and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the developmental needs of adolescents. Emphasis is on college access counseling at the early high school level as more school counseling programs move to evidence-based work with data and specific results that show how school counseling programs help to close achievement and opportunity gaps ensuring all students have access to school counseling programs and early college access activities. High School College Access curricula have been developed by The College Board to assist this process.
Transitional issues to ensure successful transitions to college, other post-secondary educational options, and careers are a key area. The high school counselor helps students and their families prepare for post-secondary education including college and careers (e.g. college, careers) by engaging students and their families in accessing and evaluating accurate information on what the National Office for School Counselor Advocacy calls the 8 essential elements of college and career counseling: (1) College Aspirations, (2) Academic Planning for Career and College Readiness, (3) Enrichment and Extracurricular Engagement, (4) College and Career Exploration and Selection Processes, (5) College and Career Assessments, (6) College Affordability Planning, (7) College and Career Admission Processes, and (8) Transition from High School Graduation to College Enrollment. Some students turn to private college admissions advisors but there is no research evidence that private college admissions advisors have any effectiveness in assisting students attain selective college admissions.
Lapan, Gysbers & Sun showed correlational evidence of the effectiveness of fully implemented school counseling programs on high school students' academic success. Carey et al.'s 2008 study showed specific best practices from high school counselors raising college-going rates within a strong college-going environment in multiple USA-based high schools with large numbers of students of non dominant cultural identities.

School counselor roles, school counseling program framework and ethics

Professional school counselors ideally implement a school counseling program that promotes and enhances student achievement. A framework for appropriate and inappropriate school counselor responsibilities and roles is outlined in the ASCA National Model. School counselors, in most USA states, usually have a Master's degree in school counseling from a Counselor Education graduate program. In Canada, they must be licensed teachers with additional school counseling training and focus on academic, career, and personal/social issues. China requires at least three years of college experience. In Japan, school counselors were added in the mid-1990s, part-time, primarily focused on behavioral issues. In Taiwan, they are often teachers with recent legislation requiring school counseling licensure focused on individual and group counseling for academic, career, and personal issues. In Korea, school counselors are mandated in middle and high schools.

School counselors are employed in elementary, middle, and high schools, and in district supervisory settings and in counselor education faculty positions (usually with an earned Ph.D. in Counselor Education in the USA or related graduate doctorates abroad), and post-secondary settings doing academic, career, college readiness, and personal/social counseling, consultation, and program coordination. Their work includes a focus on developmental stages of student growth, including the needs, tasks, and student interests related to those stages(Schmidt 2003).
Professional school counselors meet the needs of student in three basic domains: academic development, career development, and personal/social development (Dahir & Campbell, 1997; ASCA, 2005) with an increased emphasis on college access. Knowledge, understanding and skill in these domains are developed through classroom instruction, appraisal, consultation, counseling, coordination, and collaboration. For example, in appraisal, school counselors may use a variety of personality and career assessment methods (such as the or (based on the) to help students explore career and college needs and interests.
School counselor interventions include individual and group counseling for some students. For example, if a student's behavior is interfering with his or her achievement, the school counselor may observe that student in a class, provide consultation to teachers and other stakeholders to develop (with the student) a plan to address the behavioral issue(s), and then collaborate to implement and evaluate the plan. They also provide consultation services to family members such as college access, career development, parenting skills, study skills, child and adolescent development, and help with school-home transitions.
School counselor interventions for all students include annual academic/career/college access planning K-12 and leading classroom developmental lessons on academic, career/college, and personal/social topics. The topics of character education, diversity and multiculturalism (Portman, 2009), and school safety are important areas of focus for school counselors. Often school counselors will coordinate outside groups that wish to help with student needs such as academics, or coordinate a program that teaches about child abuse or drugs, through on-stage drama (Schmidt, 2003).
School counselor interventions for all students include annual academic/career/college access planning K-12 and leading classroom developmental lessons on academic, career/college, and personal/social topics. The topics of character education, diversity and multiculturalism (Portman, 2009), and school safety are important areas of focus for school counselors. Often school counselors will coordinate outside groups that wish to help with student needs such as academics, or coordinate a program that teaches about child abuse or drugs, through on-stage drama (Schmidt, 2003).
School counselors develop, implement, and evaluate school counseling programs that deliver academic, career, college access, and personal/social competencies to all students in their schools. For example, the ASCA National Model includes the following four main areas:

• Foundation - a written school counseling program mission statement, a beliefs and philosophy statement, and a focus on the ASCA standards and competencies and how they are implemented for every student;
• Delivery System - how lessons and individual and group counseling are delivered;
• Management System (use of calendars, time, building leader-school counselor role agreements, creation of action plans); and
• Accountability System - use of a School Counseling program audit, results reports, and school counselor performance evaluations based on 13 key competencies.

The model is implemented using key skills from the Education Trust's Transforming School Counseling Initiative: Advocacy, Leadership, Teaming and Collaboration, and Systemic Change.

School counselor

A school counselor is a counselor and an educator who works in elementary, middle, and high schools to provide academic, career, college access, and personal/social competencies to K-12 students. The interventions used include developmental school counseling curriculum lessons and annual planning for every student, and group and individual counseling.
Older, dated terms for the profession were "guidance counselor" or "educational counselor" but "school counselor" is preferred due to professional school counselors' advocating for every child's academic, career, and personal/social success in every elementary, middle, and high school (ASCA, 2005). In the Americas, Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Pacific, the terms school counselor, school guidance counselor, and guidance teacher are also used with the traditional emphasis career development. Countries vary in how a school counseling program and school counseling program services are provided based on economics (funding for schools and school counseling programs), social capital (independent versus public schools), and School Counselor certification and credentialing movements in education departments, professional associations, and national and local legislation.. The major accreditation body for Counselor Education/School Counseling programs is the Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), which provides international program accreditation in Counselor Education disciplines including school counseling.
In some countries, school counseling is provided by educational specialists (for example, Botswana, China, Finland, Israel, Malta, Nigeria, Romania, Taiwan, Turkey, United States). In other cases, school counseling is provided by classroom teachers who either have such duties added to their typical teaching load or teach only a limited load that also includes school counseling activities (for example- India, Japan, Mexico, South Korea, Zambia). The IAEVG focuses primarily on career development with some international school counseling articles and conference presentations.

Education philosophies

There are five basic philosophies of education

• Perennialism
• Idealism
• Realism
• Experimentalism
• Existentialism

Perennialism

This is a very conservative and inflexible philosophy of education. It is based on the view that reality comes from fundamental fixed truths-especially related to God. It believes that people find truth through reasoning and revelation and that goodness is found in rational thinking.
As a result, schools exist to teach reason and God's will. Students are taught to reason through structured lessons and drills.

Idealism

Idealism believes in refined wisdom. It is based on the view that reality is a world within a person's mind. It believes that truth is in the consistency of ideas and that goodness is an ideal state to strive to attain.
As a result, schools exist to sharpen the mind and intellectual processes. Students are taught the wisdom of past heroes.

Realism

Realism believes in the world as it is. It is based on the view that reality is what we observe. It believes that truth is what we sense and observe and that goodness is found in the order of the laws of nature.
As a result, schools exist to reveal the order of the world and universe. Students are taught factual information.

Experimentalism

Experimentalism believes that things are constantly changing. It is based on the view that reality is what you experience. It believes that truth is what works right now and that goodness comes from group decisions.
As a result, schools exist to discover and expand the society we live in. Students study social experiences and solve problems.

Existentialism

Existentialism believes in the personal interpretation of the world. It is based on the view that the individual defines reality, truth and goodness.
As a result, schools exist to aid children in knowing themselves and their place in society.
Students learn what they want and discuss subjects freely.

Educational research

What is Educational Research         Educational Research encompasses many different studies all of which attempt to better understand and improve the learning and educational process. These studies include research on topics such as Teaching, Classroom Management, Psychology, Testing, Child Development, and Cognitive Science.

Characteristics of Educational Research 

In his book entitled Fundamentals of Educational Research, Gary Anderson has outlined ten characteristics that can be used to further understand what the field of educational research entails:

• Educational research attempts to solve a problem.

• Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose.

• Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.

• Research demands accurate observation and description.

• Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.

• Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will help in understanding, prediction and/or control.

• Research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology; technical skill in collecting and analyzing the data.

• Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains to validate the procedures employed.

• Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity which is directional but often refines the problem or questions as the research progresses.

• Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problem.

Approaches in Educational Research 

There are two main approaches in educational research. The first is a basic approach. This approach is also referred to as an academic research approach. The second approach is applied research or a contract research approach. Both of these approaches have different purposes which influence the nature of the respective research. 

 The Basic Approach

 Basic, or academic research focuses on the search for truth or the development of educational theory. Researchers with this background “design studies that can test, refine, modify, or develop theories”. Generally, these researchers are affiliated with an academic institution and are performing this research as part of their graduate or doctoral work.

The Applied Approach

The pursuit of information that can be directly applied to practice is aptly known as applied or contractual research . Researchers in this field are trying to find solutions to existing educational problems. The approach is much more utilitarian as it strives to find information that will directly influence practice. Applied researchers are commissioned by a sponsor and are responsible for addressing the needs presented by this employer. The goal of this research is “to determine the applicability of educational theory and principles by testing hypotheses within specific settings”.

A Comparison of Basic and Applied Research

The following are several defining characteristics that were written by Gary Anderson to compare basic (academic) and applied (contract) research. 

	Basic (Academic) Research	Applied (Contract) Research
1	Is sponsored by an agency committed to the general advancement of knowledge.	Is sponsored by an agency with a vested interest in the results.
2	Results are the property of society and the research community.	Results become the property of the sponsor.
3	Studies rely on the established reputations of the researchers and are totally under their control.	Studies follow explicit terms of reference developed by the sponsor to serve the sponsor’s needs.
4	Budget allocations are generally based on global proposals and accounting is left to the researchers.	Budget accountability is directly related to the sponsor and relates to agreed terms of reference, time frames and methodologies.
5	The conduct of research is based on ‘good faith’ between funder and researcher.	The work is contractual between sponsor and researcher.
6	The research produces findings and conclusions, but rarely recommendations except those related to further research needs.	The research includes applied recommendations for action.
7	Academic research tends to extend an identifiable scholarly discipline.	By its nature, contract research tends to be interdisciplinary.
8	Academic research is typically focused on a single set of testable hypotheses.	Contract research frequently analyzes the consequences of alternative policy options.
9	Decision-rules relate to theoretically-based tests of statistical significance.	Decision-rules relate to predetermined conventions and agreements between the sponsor and the researcher.
10	Research reports are targeted to other specialized researchers in the same field.	Research reports are intended to be read and understood by lay persons.

Methodology in Educational Research

The basis for educational research is the scientific method. The scientific method uses directed questions and manipulation of variables to systematically find information about the teaching and learning process. In this scenario questions are answered by the analysis of data that is collected specifically for the purpose of answering these questions. Hypotheses are written and subsequently proved or disproved by data which leads to the creation of new hypotheses. The two main types of data that are used under this method are qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research uses data which is descriptive in nature. Tools that educational researchers use in collecting qualitative data include: observations, conducting interviews, conducting document analysis, and analyzing participant products such as journals, diaries, images or blogs.

Types of Qualitative Research

Case study 

Ethnography

Phenomenological Research 

Narrative Research

Historical Research

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research uses data that is numerical and is based on the assumption that the numbers will describe a single reality. Statistics are often applied to find relationships between variables.

Types of Quantitative Research

Descriptive Survey Research 

Experimental Research 

Single - Subject Research

Causal - Comparative Research 

Correlational Research 

Meta-analysis